What Is Greek Fire? A Short Definition
Greek fire was a liquid fire weapon. The Byzantine Empire used it from the 7th century onward, above all to burn enemy ships.
It was not a bomb or a single flaming arrow. It was a burning liquid that the crew pushed through a tube and aimed at a target. If you picture a garden hose with a nozzle, you have the basic idea of the delivery. The liquid, of course, was something far worse than water.
The weapon is closely tied to Constantinople, the city you now know as Istanbul. If you walk along the old sea walls today, you are standing where this weapon helped keep an empire alive.
Why Is It Called “Greek Fire”? The Name Explained
The name has a trail of its own. The term “Greek fire” we use today comes from the way medieval Crusaders referred to the Byzantine fire weapons.
The Byzantines used other words. Their texts call the weapon hygron pyr, “liquid fire,” and pyr thalassion, “sea fire.”
Turkish uses several names too: Rum ateşi, Bizans ateşi, Yunan ateşi and sıvı ateş. One Turkish name, Grejuva ateşi, is also listed in Turkish references.
How the Greek Fire Weapon Worked
The key was the delivery system. Byzantine ships carried bronze or brass tubes, called siphons, mounted at the bow. Crews sprayed the burning liquid from these tubes onto enemy ships.
The weapon was not limited to the sea. Military documents from the 10th century recommend portable fire-throwers, called cheirosiphon, for use on both land and sea.
Using it was not simple. Spraying the fire through a siphon safely needed calm seas and a suitable wind.
The historical accounts also say the fire could burn on the surface of water. That detail fascinates people. Still, the claim that it ignited by itself on contact with water is debated, so treat it with caution.
Greek Fire Formula: What Was Inside?
Here is the honest answer: the exact chemical formula has not survived. No list of ingredients can be presented as a verified Byzantine recipe.
Historians have proposed several theories.
- Petroleum. This is the theory with the most support. The main ingredient would have been crude or processed petroleum. Researchers think plant resins may have been added to thicken the mixture, make it stickier and keep it burning.
- Saltpeter. Some have argued that saltpeter was the main ingredient. The objection is that there is no evidence of its military use in Europe or the Near East before the 13th century.
- Quicklime. Some have built a theory on quicklime reacting with water. The objection is that Byzantine accounts describe the weapon being used without any contact with water.
Anna Komnene, a Byzantine princess and historian, describes a fire weapon at the 1108 defense of Dyrrachium that used pine resin and sulfur. That is a useful clue. It does not prove the exact formula of the secret mixture used on ships.
Who Invented It? The Kallinikos Story
Theophanes, who wrote in the early 9th century, credits the invention of sea fire to Kallinikos. According to him, Kallinikos was a refugee who came to Byzantium from Heliopolis in Syria.
But was he the sole inventor? Not necessarily. Theophanes already mentions Byzantine ships equipped with siphons for the years 671–672. That suggests Kallinikos may have improved a weapon that already existed.
The development of Greek fire is traditionally dated to about 672. Its first use is traditionally tied to the siege of Constantinople in 674–678.
Greek Fire and the Gods: The Angel Legend
People sometimes search for a “god” behind the weapon. The closest thing is a legend recorded by the Byzantines themselves.
The 10th-century political handbook of Emperor Constantine VII passes on a story that an angel taught the secret of the fire to Constantine the Great. The story gave the weapon a holy origin.
Greek Fire in Real Life: Where Was It Used?
The best-known setting is Constantinople. The weapon’s first use is traditionally tied to the siege of 674–678, and Greek fire also contributed to the city’s defense during the Arab siege of 717–718.
Later sources show the weapon, or weapons like it, in other places:
- Anna Komnene describes a clash with a Pisan fleet. In her account, the commander Landulf’s first shot of fire was wasted because of poor aim.
- She also describes fire pipes on Alexios’s ships. They were passed through the mouths of gilded lion heads and other animal heads.
- At Dyrrachium in 1108, the defenders used a fire weapon through a hole they opened against an enemy tunnel.
The last scene is easy to miss. The weapon was not only for ships. It could also be used in a siege, against diggers working under the walls.
Greek Fire vs. Napalm
People often compare Greek fire to modern napalm. The link is simple. Both are described as sticky, petroleum-based fire weapons.
The comparison stops there. Nobody knows whether their chemical formulas were the same. Napalm is a useful picture for the effect, not proof of the recipe.
How Do You Put Out Greek Fire?
Medieval writers mention sand, strong vinegar and old urine as ways to put it out. Treat these as reports, not facts. They are not verified by modern extinguishing tests.
Can Anyone Recreate It? The Modern Experiments
In the 1970s, John Haldon and Maurice Byrne tested the crude petroleum idea on a small scale. They used paper ships in a basin.
In 2002, Haldon’s team tried an experimental recreation. It was based on a light, easily ignited type of crude oil from the region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.
These experiments show that a petroleum-based fire is plausible. They do not recover the original secret.
Timeline
- 671–672: Theophanes describes Byzantine warships equipped with siphons.
- About 672: The development of Greek fire is traditionally placed at this date.
- 674–678: The siege of Constantinople, to which the weapon’s first use is traditionally tied.
- 717–718: Greek fire helps defend Constantinople during the Arab siege.
- 1108: Fire weapons are used in the defense of Dyrrachium.
- 2002: John Haldon’s team tries to recreate Greek fire experimentally.
Details You Won’t Find in Guidebooks
- Lion-head nozzles. Anna Komnene says the fire tubes on Alexios’s ships were passed through the mouths of gilded lion heads and other animal heads. A warship could look like a floating menagerie.
- A missed shot. In her account of the Pisan fleet, Landulf’s first fire shot is wasted because of bad aim. Even a secret weapon depended on the person holding it.
- A holy secret. Constantine VII’s handbook says an angel taught the secret to Constantine the Great.
- Paper ships. In the 1970s, Haldon and Byrne tested the crude oil idea on paper ships in a basin. The first modern tests were small-scale.
- Fire against a tunnel. At Dyrrachium, the defenders used a fire weapon through a hole they opened against the enemy’s tunnel. The weapon was used in sieges on land as well as at sea.
FAQ
What was Greek fire made of?
Nobody knows for certain, because the exact formula has not survived. The theory with the most support is that the main ingredient was crude or refined petroleum, possibly thickened with plant resins.
Who invented Greek fire?
The chronicler Theophanes, writing in the early 9th century, credits Kallinikos, a refugee from Heliopolis in Syria. Because Theophanes already mentions Byzantine ships with siphons for 671–672, Kallinikos may have improved an existing weapon rather than invented it.
Is Greek fire the same as napalm?
No. The comparison rests on both being sticky, petroleum-based fire weapons. Nobody knows whether their chemical formulas were the same.
Why is it called Greek fire?
The name comes from the way medieval Crusaders referred to the Byzantine fire weapons. The Byzantines themselves used names such as hygron pyr (liquid fire) and pyr thalassion (sea fire).
Where was Greek fire used?
Mainly at sea and in the defense of Constantinople, including the Arab sieges of 674–678 and 717–718. Anna Komnene also describes fire weapons in a clash with a Pisan fleet and at the defense of Dyrrachium in 1108.
Sources
- Wikipedia — Greek fire en.wikipedia.org
- Vikipedi — Rum ateşi tr.wikipedia.org
- Kokoszko and Leszka — Naval Fire/Liquid Fire rcin.org.pl
- Southern Cross University — Greek fire scu.edu.au
- Fordham University — Anna Comnena, Alexiad XI sourcebooks.fordham.edu
- Fordham University — Anna Comnena, Alexiad XIII sourcebooks.fordham.edu
- American Chemical Society, C&EN — Historians decode centuries-old chemical secrets cen.acs.org
Image: Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg — Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain
